Identifying the products of chemical reactions
(chemistry only) 

Hydrogen

The test for hydrogen uses a burning splint held at the open end of a test tube of the gas. Hydrogen burns rapidly with a pop sound.

This test requires you to allow a second, or two, for oxygen gas from the air to mix with the hydrogen first, as the test is actually showing the chemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen to make water.

Carbon Dioxide

The test for carbon dioxide uses an aqueous solution of calcium hydroxide (limewater). When carbon dioxide is shaken with or bubbled through limewater the limewater turns milky (cloudy).

This test is actually a reaction between the carbon dioxide and limewater, to make limestone (calcium carbonate).

Oxygen

The test for oxygen uses a glowing splint inserted into a test tube of the gas. The splint relights in oxygen.

Chlorine

The test for chlorine uses litmus paper. When damp litmus paper is put into chlorine gas the litmus paper is bleached and turns white.

Iron is also used as a catalyst in the Haber Process to make ammonia, and iron(III) oxide is used to make hydrogen by reacting carbon monoxide with steam.

Flame tests can be used to identify metal ions (cations) in compounds. Steps to produce flame colours include:

1. wearing eye protection, clean a wire loop by dipping in hydrochloric acid, and then holding in a blue flame for a few seconds
   
2. dip the clean wire loop into a solid sample of the compound being tested, and then hold in a blue flame
   
3. observe and record the flame colour produced
   

You need to know the colour of :​

• lithium ions, Li⁺ (red)
  
• sodium ions, Na⁺ (yellow)
  
• potassium ion, K⁺ (lilac)
  
• calcium ions, Ca²⁺ (orange-red)
  
• copper ions, Cu²⁺ (blue-green)
  

Compounds that contain transition metals are often coloured. If we react two chemicals together and a new solid is made (one that doesn't dissolve in the solution) we call it a precipitation reaction. Compounds can dissociate (split apart into ions) in solutions, and the positive ions are referred to as cations.

Using sodium hydroxide

Dilute sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH) is used to test for some metal ions and can also be used to identify ammonium ions.

Testing for carbonate ions

Carbonate ions, CO₃^2- are detected using any dilute acid (e.g. hydrochloric acid). Bubbles of carbon dioxide gas will be given off when an acid is added.

We can pass the gas through limewater and if it turns the limewater cloudy it will confirm the gas is carbon dioxide.

Testing for sulfate ions

Sulfate ions (SO₄^2-) can be tested for using barium chloride. Barium sulfate will form, which is an insoluble white precipitate.

To test for sulfate ions in solution:

1. add a few drops of dilute hydrochloric acid to the sample
   
2. add a few drops of dilute barium chloride solution
   

We add acid first, because carbonate ions will also produce a white precipitate with barium chloride solution. The acid is added so it can react with any carbonate ions that may be present, and so removing them, so they can't give a false result for sulfate ions.

Testing for halide ions

Silver ions will react with halide ions (Cl⁻, Br⁻ or I⁻) to form insoluble precipitates.

To test for halide ions in solution:

1. add a few drops of dilute nitric acid to the sample
   
2. add a few drops of dilute silver nitrate solution
   
3. observe and record the colour of any precipitate that forms
   

We add acid first, because carbonate ions will also produce a white precipitate with silver nitrate solution. The acid is added so it can react with any carbonate ions that may be present, and so removing them, so they can't give a false result for chloride ions.

New technology, developed over the last few decades, have considerably advanced analytical chemistry. These new instrumental methods have three main advantages, they are:

• more rapid (produce results faster)
  
• more accurate (they are more reliable at identifying elements/compounds)
  
• more sensitive (they can detect very small amounts of substances)
  

Each method works in a different way, but they essentially have most features in common:

1. a stimulus enters the sample (light, heat, current, voltage etc)
   
2. this is then read by a detector, producing a signal
   
3. the signal is amplified/digitalised
   
4. the output is plotted (usually) on a graph
   

Flame photometers (often referred to as a flame emission spectroscope) is an instrumental method used to analyse metal ions. 

1. a sample is heated in a flame, and the light emitted from the flame is passed through a spectroscope
   
2. the resulting pattern is known as a spectrum
   

Every element has its own specific set of wavelengths, so every pattern is unique (can be thought of as an element's 'fingerprint').​

If there is a mixture of ions, one colour may be covered up by another in a flame test. In an emission spectrum, the intensity of the light is actually a measure of concentration of the different elements. This means that the ratio of ions present can be determined.

Determining concentrations

A reading can be taken from the flame photometer for different concentrations of a metal ion in solution. These readings are then used to plot a calibration curve.

Having a calibration curve of known samples, allows scientists to be able to identify the concentration of a sample just by looking at the graph!

For example, if a solution of sodium ions gave a reading of 5 units on the flame photometer, then the calibration curve allows us to read off that the sample had a concentration of 0.025 g/dm³.